Were the Nazi’s close to acquiring an Atomic Bomb?

An interesting article has recently been featured on The Times’ website stating that a team has begun drilling near a network of tunnels that were built by concentration camp prisoners in Austria in order to discover whether Adolph Hitler was near to acquiring an atomic bomb.

The Mauthausen-Gusen Camp site.

The search to discover secret underground chambers came about after the discovery of strange levels of radiation coming from the former Mauthausen-Gusen labour camps, a large area when the Nazi’s built aircraft underground to avoid any air raids by Allied forces. It is believed that up to three hundred and twenty thousand prisoners were executed in gas chambers or slaved to death within the complex. It has now been discovered though that many of these workers were scientists assigned to a secret undisclosed project from 1941, and this has lead to renewed assumption that it may have been a secret branch of the Nazi’s nuclear program.

This is ‘Little Boy’ the codename for the type of atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima.

It is well known that the Nazi’s were in pursuit of nuclear weapons, as they conducted many studies into the weaponry in German research institutions, furthermore Heinrich Himmler who was in charge of the SS forces visited the secretive Mauthausen-Gusen camp regularly. This furthered the theories that atomic research may have been conducted there.  The pressure to dig near the tunnels in order to locate secret laboratories or storage areas greatly increased after the discoveries of Andreas Sulzer who researched the camps. Sulzer had been working on a film about Austrian scientist Viktor Schauberger for two years when he discovered that he was secretly involved from 1941 on SS research projects and warned colleagues in letters that he was involved in atom smashing.

SS Troops posing for photographs outside the Mauthausen-Gusen camp.

During a search of archives in both Germany and the US, Sulzer found that two hundred and seventy two inmates were taken from the Mauthausen-Gusen camp to St Georgen in January 1944 to build underground passages. The known tunnels within the area have mostly been filled in but Sulzer believes that sections where nuclear experiments may have been preformed were missed.  Sulzer claims that he has found blueprints which suggest that other chambers may exist, although digging has been underway for many weeks but so far with no sign of any tunnels. The drilling is being conducted by a government-owned company which has been working for ten years to make 6 kilo-meters of tunnels safe, using the technique of pumping them full of concrete. The company is most anxious however, to determine if these theories are correct.

Reference:
Charter, D (2014). Secret tunnels ‘led to Hitler’s atom bomb lab’.  Available: http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/europe/article4001752.ece. Last accessed: 09/02/2014.

Stara Synagoga (the Old Synagogue)

Stara Synagoga

The Stara Synagogue’s Fortress Exterior

The Stara Synagoga, otherwise known as the Old Synagogue is an Orthodox Jewish synagogue found in the Kazimierz district of Krakow. It is the oldest synagogue building still standing in Poland and one of the most valued examples of Jewish architecture in Europe. Until the Germans invaded Poland in 1939 it was the most important synagogue in Krakow and served as the main religious and social hub to Krakow’s Jewish community. A plaque can be seen in the Stara Synagoga’s entrance hall commemorating General Tadeusz Kosciuszko’s 1794 speech from the synagogue in support of the struggle for Polish Independence:

‘The Jews proved to the world that whenever humanity can gain, they would not spare themselves.’  General Tadeusz Kosciuszko.

Although the date varies between sources it is believed the Synagogue was built somewhere between 1407 and 1492. The original building was rebuilt due to fire damage during the 16^th century by Italian architect Mateo Gucci, the outside interior was built in the Renaissance fashion whilst leaving the interiors architecture in its original Gothic style. Furthermore the rebuild included many military features such as having windows placed high above ground level and solid masonry walls with buttressing being built to endure a siege. This architecture makes the Old Synagogue a rare surviving example of a Polish fortress synagogue.

The Synagogue after the damage of Nazi forces.

During World War II the old synagogue was ransacked and destroyed by Nazi forces. Its many artworks and Jewish relics were looted and during the German occupation the synagogue was used as a magazine by Nazi forces (a term used to define a place where large amounts of ammunition are stored ready for distribution). In 1943, 30 Polish hostages were executed at the synagogues wall.

The Synagogues Gothic interior.

From 1956 to 1959 the old synagogue was once again renovated and now currently operates as a museum, functioning as a Division of the Historical Museum of Krakow, focusing in particular on Krakow’s Jewish history and traditions.  The Gothic interior of the synagogue has been restored to its past brilliance due to the help of its varied collections, including relics of Krakow’s former Kazimierz Jewish quarter, including old photographs, documents and pictures. The many exhibits are divided into different themes dealing with areas such as birth, prayer rituals, diet and death. The Beautiful Women’s Prayer Room, which dates back to the 17^th century, is used to hold the museums more contempary exhibitions.

Information found on:

Sacred Destinations (2005). Old Synagogue, Krakow. Available: http://www.sacred-destinations.com/poland/krakow-old-synagogue. Last accessed 11/02/13

Sergeldin, I, Shuluger, E and Martin-Brown, J (2001). Historic Cities and Scared Sites: Cultural Roots for Urban Futures. Washington DC: World Bank Publications.

Strzala, M. (2006). Old Synagogue in Krakow. Available: http://www.krakow-info.com/synagog.htm. Last accessed 11/02/13.

 

A Brief History of Wawel Castle

Wawel Castle

Wawel Castle, located in Krakow, Poland was built at the request of Casimir III the Great who reigned over Poland between 1333 till 1370. The Castle was built in keeping with Gothic design and consists of many different structures all situated around the central courtyard.  Wawel was erected atop a limestone outcrop found on the left bank of the Vistula River in Krakow at an altitude of 228 meters above sea level.

Although the complex consists of many difference buildings, the largest and best known are the Royal Castle and Wawel Cathedral. Some of the oldest stone buildings found in Wawel can be dated back to 970AD. The wooden parts of the compound also date back to around the 9^th century. Wawel is a place of great significance to the people of Poland due to it being not only a centre of political power but also one of the main Polish centres of Christianity.

Wawel Castle – Over centuries, various styles of architecture have evolved side-by-side.

During the 14^th century the Castle was rebuilt by Jogaila and Jadwiga of Poland (who reigned from 1384-1399). During their reign a tower was added to the complex called the Hen’s Foot. Their private chamber is also open for exhibition and contains the Szczerbiec sword which was used during coronation ceremonies which were held at the Castle. During this period other structures were developed on Wawel Hill in order to serve as housing for their clergy, royal clerks and craftsmen. Many defensive walls and towers were also erected under their rule in order offer them further protection from possible invasion.

Through the reign of Sigismund I Stary, the last member of the Jagiellonian dynasty there was an influx in the Wawel fortunes, and following a fire in 1499 Sigismund I Stary rebuilt the Royal Castle. Sigismund had spent a great deal of his youth with his brother King Waldislaw of Hungary and Bohemia, in Buda. Due to this experience he was inspired by the courts Italian artisans who were establishing the Renaissance movement (which was little known outside of Florence) and thus he decided to rebuild the residence in the Renaissance style.

Wawel Castle rebuild in the Renaissance style.

Throughout the reign of Ladislas Jagiello during the 15th century a Gothic pavilion, known as the Danish Tower was added to the castle, other than this addition however, the castle complex remained unchanged until a fire in 1595, which saw the entire northeast side of the castle burned down.  King Sigismund III Vasa did rebuild this section but despite his efforts only the Senator Stairs and Bird Room fireplace remain today. In the period of 1609, King Sigismund moved to Warsaw which meant that Wawel Castle and its surrounding buildings suffered great neglect despite the help of local governors. Fruthermore due to the Swedish Invasions of 1655-1657 and 1702 Wawel castle sadly faced further deterioration.

Throughout the reign of Ladislas Jagiello during the 15^th century a Gothic pavilion, known as the Danish Tower was added to the castle, other than this addition however, the castle complex remained unchanged until a fire in 1595, which saw the entire northeast side of the castle burned down.  King Sigismund III Vasa did rebuild this section but despite his efforts only the Senator Stairs and Bird Room fireplace remain today. In the period of 1609, King Sigismund moved to Warsaw which meant that Wawel Castle and its surrounding buildings suffered great neglect despite the help of local governors. Fruthermore due to the Swedish Invasions of 1655-1657 and 1702 Wawel castle sadly faced further deterioration.

Wawel Castle and Wawel Hill represent the some of the most historically and culturally important sites in Poland due to its remaining for centuries the residence of the Kings of Poland, and so becoming symbolic of Polish statehood, its impressive fortress visually dominates the city and has often lead to it being viewed as a seat of power in Poland. Furthermore the Castle is now one of the country’s premier art museums. The museum was established in 1930 and comprises of 10 curatorial departments in charge of different collections including: Italian Renaissance paintings, sculptures and textiles. Sigismund II Augustus tapestry collection, period furniture and armour can also be found within the Castle museum as well as Oriental art including the largest collection of Ottoman tents in Europe. The museum is also a very important centre for the conservation of art works.

Hans Frank

During World War II, Wawel Castle became the residence of Governor General Hans Frank. Born Hans Michael Frank (23^rd May 1900 – 16^th October 1946) He was a German Lawyer who worked for the Nazi party during the 1920’s and 1930s. After Hitler came to power in 1933, Frank became Nazi Germanys chief jurist and the Governor-General of Poland’s General Government territory (the area of Poland not directly incorporated into Germany). During his tyrannical regime, he oversaw the segregation of Jews into ghettos and the use of Polish civilians for forced labour. During the Nuremberg trials he was found guilty of numerous war crimes and crimes against humanity and was executed. He and Albert Speer are alleged to be the only defendants to show remorse for their actions during their trials. During his tyrannical regime many artefacts were removed from Warwel castle and still have not yet been returned to Poland. Many of the tapestries which hung in the castle also disappeared during this time.

Hans Michael Frank

Zegota and Irena Sendler

Zegota and Irena Sendler
(1942-1945)

Zegota, also known as ‘The Konrad Zegota Committee’ was a codename used for The Council to Aid Jews. The Council to Aid Jews was an underground organization set up in German occupied Poland in the years 1942 – 1945. It worked under the sponsorship of the Polish Government who were exiled through the Government Delegation for Poland in Warsaw (Slawinski ND). The Zegota’s main purpose was to help aid Poland’s Jews and find safe places for them to live in occupied Poland. Poland was the only country in Europe, during the war where such a devoted underground organisation existed (Piotrowski 1998).

The Zegota was created in order to supersede work of the Provisional Committee to Aid Jews, which was founded in 1942 by Zofia Kossak-Szcucka and Wanda Krahelska-Filipowicz (Piotrowski 1998). The Provisional Committee to Aid Jews consisted of mostly Polish Catholic activists and at the time had around 180 people under its care; however the Committee to Aid Jews was soon disbanded for both political and financial reasons. The Zegota was then created in December, 1942 to further continue the work of the Provisional Committee (Piotrowski 1998).

Zegota was divided up into different sections dealing with the different needs of Jews located in German occupied Poland, for instance Legalization, Housing, Child Welfare, Medical needs, Clothing, Financial etc. From the Councils base in Warsaw, Zegota networks had grown to include relief organisations in Krakow, Lwow, Lublin and the surrounding countryside (Piotrowski 1998).

It is approximated that around 50,000 Jews who survived the Holocaust in Poland were helped in some way by Zegota. Zegota has around 100 other branches, which operated mostly in Warsaw, where it distributed relief funds to around 3,000 Jews. The second largest Branch was found in Krakow but other branches also operated in both Vilnius and L’viv (Slawinki ND). It is thought that around 4,000 Jews received funding directly from Zegota, 5,600 from the Jewish National Committee and 2,000 from the Bund (a Jewish socialist party operating in Poland). However around 8,500 Jews residing in Warsaw were helped by the aid of all three organisations (Piotrowski 1998).

Konrad Zegota, as mentioned above, was not actually a person, but was the codename given to The Council to Aid Jews. In the Polish Underground, all their wartime efforts were given a codename as Zegota did not want any underground movements to do with the Jews being discovered. As Zegota was not only mentioned in discussions but also in documents, receipts etc. They used Konrad Zegota as a cover for all activities involving aid for Jews (Paulsson 2004).

One Important Zegota worker was Irena Sendler (15^th February 1910 – 12^th May 2008). She was born in Warsaw and after the death of her father, Jewish community leaders offered her mother help in paying for her education. She attended Warsaw University where she studied Polish Literature and joined the Socialist Party. She opposed the Ghetto-bench system (a system of segregation that existed in some pre-war Polish Universities) and defaced her grade card as a symbol of resistance against the Ghetto-bench system. As a result of her public protest she was suspended from the University of Warsaw for three years (Auschwitz.dk n.d).

She later became a Nurse/Social worker who served in the Polish Underground during World War II and was the head of the Child Welfare section of Zegota. As a result she was given a special permit which allowed her access into the Warsaw Ghetto to check for signs of Typhus (something the Nazi’s feared would spread beyond the Ghetto) (Yad Vashem 2014). During these visits, she wore a Star of David as a sign of her solidarity with Jewish people. Under the pretext of conducting inspections of typhus within the Ghetto, Sendler and her co-workers helped smuggle 2,500 Jewish babies and children out of the Ghetto in ambulances, trams or sometimes even disguised as packages. Sandler also helped provide them with fake identification documents and housing in Aryan sections of Warsaw, helping save them from the brutality of the Holocaust (Scislowska, 2008).

The Children were placed with Polish families outside of the Ghetto, or were given to the Warsaw orphanage: ‘Of the Sisters of the Family of Mary’ or in Roman Catholic Convents. Sendler worked closely with Zofia Kossak-Szcucka, a resistance fighter and writer and with Matylda Ghetter, Mother Provincial of: ‘The Franciscan Sisters of the Family of Mary’. Irena Sendler and her group of around 30 volunteers, managed to slip hundreds of infants, young children and teenagers safely out of the Ghetto. Sendler and her group made sure they buried all evidence linked to the hidden children in jars to keep track of their real/new identities and assured the children than once the war was over they would be returned to their Jewish families (Paldiel 2006).

In 1943 The Nazis eventually discovered Sendlers actions and she was arrested by the Gestapo. Whist arrested she was severely tortured and sentenced to death. Zegota saved Sendler however, by bribing her German guards on the way to her execution. She was listed on public bulletin boards as having been executed and for the remainder of the war she remained in hiding, but continued her work for Zegota. After the war she and her co-workers gave all of their records about the identies of the hidden Jewish children to Zegota in order to return them home. Almost all of their parents though had been killed at the Treblinka extermination camp or were missing (Yad Vashem 2014).

In 1965, Sendler was recognised by the State of Israel as Righteous among the Nations and was later awarded Poland’s highest honour for her wartime efforts. She appears on a silver 2008 Polish commemorative coin which honours some of the Polish Righteous among the Nations (Yad Vashem 2014).

References:

Auschwitz.dk (n.d). Irena Sendler – An Unsung Heroine. Available: http://www.auschwitz.dk/Sendler.htm. Last Accessed: 21/01/14

Paldiel, M (2006). Churches and the Holocaust: Unholy teaching, good Samaritans and reconciliation. New Jersey: KTAV Publishing House Inc.

Paulsson, G (2004). The Rescue of Jews by Non-Jews in Nazi Occupied Poland. Journal of Holocaust Education, Volume 7 (1&2).

Piotrowski, T (1998). Poland’s Holocaust. London: Globetrotter Books, Division of International Broadcasting Productions Ltd.

Scislowska, M (2008). Polish Holocaust hero dies at age 98. Available: http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-05-12-1916156174_x.htm. Last Accessed: 21/01/14.

Slawinki, A (N.D). Those who helped Polish Jews during WWII. London; London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association.

Yad Vashem (2014). Smuggling Children out the Ghetto – Irena Sendler. Available: http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/stories/sendler.asp. Last Accessed: 21/01/14.